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Introduction to Theory of Literature

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About Course

This is a survey of the main trends in twentieth-century literary theory. Lectures will provide background for the readings and explicate them where appropriate while attempting to develop a coherent overall context that incorporates philosophical and social perspectives on the recurrent questions: what is literature, how is it produced, how can it be understood, and what is its purpose?

Course Structure

This Yale College course, taught on campus twice per week for 50 minutes, was recorded for Open Yale Courses in Spring, 2009. The Open Yale Courses Series. For more information about Professor Fry’s book Theory of Literature, http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300180831.

Professor

Paul H. Fry, William Lampson Professor of English

About Professor Paul H. Fry

Paul H. Fry is the William Lampson Professor of English at Yale and specializes in British Romanticism, literary theory, and literature and the visual arts. He was educated at the University of California, Berkeley, and Harvard and has been teaching at Yale since 1971. His publications include The Poet’s Calling in the English Ode, for which he was awarded the Melville Cane Award; The Reach of Criticism: Method and Perception in Literary Theory; William Empson: Prophet Against Sacrifice; A Defense of Poetry: Essays on the Occasion of Writing; and Wordsworth and the Poetry of What We Are.

Attribution

BY-NC-SA

Paul H. Fry, “Introduction to Theory of Literature” by Open Yale Courses (Yale University), (Accessed June 14, 2020) is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 3.0.

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Course Content

Introduction
In this first lecture, Professor Paul Fry explores the course’s title in three parts. The relationship between theory and philosophy, the question of what literature is and does, and what constitutes an introduction are interrogated. The professor then situates the emergence of literary theory in the history of modern criticism and, through an analysis of major thinkers such as Marx, Nietzsche, and Freud, provides antecedents for twentieth-century theoretical developments.

  • Lecture 1 – Introduction
    39:29

Introduction (cont.)
In this second introductory lecture, Professor Paul Fry explores the interrelation of skepticism and determinism. The nature of discourse and the related issue of discursivity is read through two modern works, Anton Chekov’s Cherry Orchard and Henry James’ The Ambassadors. Exemplary critical focus on literary authority is located in Michel Foucault’s “What Is an Author” and Roland Barthes’ “The Death of the Author,” both of which are read with an emphasis on their historical contexts. Objections to the approach and conclusions of the two theorists are examined, particularly in light of the rise of cultural studies.

Ways In and Out of the Hermeneutic Circle
In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry examines acts of reading and interpretation by way of the theory of hermeneutics. The origins of hermeneutic thought are traced through Western literature. The mechanics of hermeneutics, including the idea of a hermeneutic circle, are explored in detail with reference to the works of Hans-George Gadamer, Martin Heidegger, and E. D. Hirsch. Particular attention is paid to the emergence of concepts of “historicism” and “historicality” and their relation to hermeneutic theory.

Configurative Reading
The discussion of Gadamer and Hirsch continues in this lecture, which further examines the relationship between reading and interpretation. Through a comparative analysis of these theorists, Professor Paul Fry explores the difference between meaning and significance, the relationship between understanding and paraphrasing, and the nature of the gap between the reader and the text. Through Wolfgang Iser’s essay, “The Reading Process,” the nature of textual expectation and surprise, and the theory of their universal importance in narrative, is explained. The lecture concludes by considering the fundamental, inescapable role that hermeneutic premises play in canon formation.

The Idea of the Autonomous Artwork
In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry explores the origins of formalist literary criticism. Considerable attention is paid to the rise and subsequent popularity of the New Critics and their preferred site of literary exploration, the “poem.” The idea of autonomous art is explored in the writings of, among others, Kant, Coleridge, and Wilde. Using the work of Wimsatt and Beardsley, the lecture concludes with an examination of acceptable categories of evidence in New Criticism.

The New Criticism and Other Western Formalisms
In this second lecture on formalism, Professor Paul Fry begins by exploring the implications of Wimsatt and Beardsley’s theory of literary interpretation by applying them to Yeats’s “Lapis Lazuli.” He then maps the development of Anglo-American formalism from Modernist literature to the American and British academies. Some time is spent examining the similarities and differences between the works of I. A. Richards and his protegé, William Empson. The lecture finally turns to a discussion of Cleanth Brooks’s conception of unity.

Russian Formalism
In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry explores the works of major Russian formalists reviewed in an essay by Boris Eikhenbaum. He begins by distinguishing Russian formalism from hermeneutics. Eikhenbaum’s dependency on core ideas of Marxist and Darwinian philosophies of struggle and evolution is explained. Formalism’s scientific language and methodical aspirations are discussed. Crucial formalist distinctions between plot and story, practical and poetic language, and literature and literariness are clarified.

Semiotics and Structuralism
In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry explores the semiotics movement through the work of its founding theorist, Ferdinand de Saussure. The relationship of semiotics to hermeneutics, New Criticism, and Russian formalism is considered. Key semiotic binaries–such as langue and parole, signifier and signified, and synchrony and diachrony–are explored. Considerable time is spent applying semiotics theory to the example of a “red light” in a variety of semiotic contexts.

Linguistics and Literature
In this lecture on the work of Roman Jakobson, Professor Paul Fry continues his discussion of synchrony and diachrony. The relationships among formalism, semiotics, and linguistics are explored. Claude Levi-Strauss’s structural interpretation of the Oedipus myth is discussed in some detail. In order to differentiate Jakobson’s poetic functions, Professor Fry analyzes the sentence “It is raining” from six perspectives. Significant attention is paid to the use of diagrams in literary linguistic theory.

Deconstruction I
In this lecture on Derrida and the origins of deconstruction, Professor Paul Fry explores two central Derridian works: “Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of Human Sciences” and “Différance.” Derrida’s critique of structuralism and semiotics, particularly the work of Levi-Strauss and Saussure, is articulated. Deconstruction’s central assertions that language is by nature arbitrary and that meaning is indeterminate are examined. Key concepts, such as the nature of the text, discourse, différance, and supplementarity are explored.

Deconstruction II
In this second lecture on deconstruction, Professor Paul Fry concludes his consideration of Derrida and begins to explore the work of Paul de Man. Derrida’s affinity for and departure from Levi-Strauss’s distinction between nature and culture are outlined. De Man’s relationship with Derrida, their similarities and differences–particularly de Man’s insistence on “self-deconstruction” and his reliance on Jakobson–are discussed. The difference between rhetoric and grammar, particularly the rhetoricization of grammar and the grammaticization of rhetoric, is elucidated through de Man’s own examples taken from “All in the Family,” Yeats’s “Among School Children,” and the novels of Proust.

Freud and Fiction
In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry turns his attention to the relationship between authorship and the psyche. Freud’s meditations on the fundamental drives governing human behavior are read through the lens of literary critic Peter Brooks. The origins of Freud’s work on the “pleasure principle” and his subsequent revision of it are charted, and the immediate and constant influence of Freudian thought on literary production is asserted. Brooks’ contributions to literary theory are explored: particularly the coupling of multiple Freudian principles, including the pleasure principle and the death wish, and their application to narrative structures. At the lecture’s conclusion, the professor returns to the children’s story, Tony the Tow Truck, to suggest the universality of Brooks’s argument.

Jacques Lacan in Theory
In this lecture on psychoanalytic criticism, Professor Paul Fry explores the work of Jacques Lacan. Lacan’s interest in Freud and distaste for post-Freudian “ego psychologists” are briefly mentioned, and his clinical work on “the mirror stage” is discussed in depth. The relationship in Lacanian thought, between metaphor and metonymy is explored through the image of the point de capiton. The correlation between language and the unconscious, and the distinction between desire and need, are also explained, with reference to Hugo’s “Boaz Asleep.”

Influence
In this lecture on the psyche in literary theory, Professor Paul Fry explores the work of T. S. Eliot and Harold Bloom, specifically their studies of tradition and individualism. Related and divergent perspectives on tradition, innovation, conservatism, and self-effacement are traced throughout Eliot’s “Tradition and the Individual Talent” and Bloom’s “A Meditation upon Priority.” Particular emphasis is placed on the process by which poets struggle with the literary legacies of their precursors. The relationship of Bloom’s thinking, in particular, to Freud’s Oedipus complex is duly noted. The lecture draws heavily from the works of Pope, Borges, Joyce, Homer, Wordsworth, Longinus, and Milton.

The Postmodern Psyche
In this lecture on the postmodern psyche, Professor Paul Fry explores the work of Gilles Deleuze, Felix Guattari and Slavoj Žižek. The notion of the “postmodern” is defined through the use of examples in the visual arts and architecture. Deleuze and Guattari’s theory of “rhizomatic” thinking and their intellectual debts are elucidated. Žižek’s film criticism, focused on the relation between desire and need, is explored in connection with Lacan.

The Social Permeability of Reader and Text
In this first lecture on the theory of literature in social contexts, Professor Paul Fry examines the work of Mikhail Bakhtin and Hans Robert Jauss. The relation of their writing to formalist theory and the work of Barthes and Foucault is articulated. The dimensions of Bakhtin’s heteroglossia, along with the idea of common language, are explored in detail through a close reading of the first sentence of Jane Austin’s Pride and Prejudice. Jauss’s study of the history of reception is explicated with reference to Borges’s “Pierre Menard, Author of the Quixote” and the Broadway revival of Damn Yankees.

The Frankfurt School of Critical Theory
This first lecture on social theories of art and artistic production examines the Frankfurt School. The theoretical writings of Theodor Adorno and Walter Benjamin are explored in historical and political contexts, including Marxism, socialist realism, and late capitalism. The concept of mechanical reproduction, specifically the relationship between labor and art, is explained at some length. Adorno’s opposition to this argument, and his own position, are explained. The lecture concludes with a discussion of Benjamin’s perspective on the use of distraction and shock in the process of aesthetic revelation.

The Political Unconscious
In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry explores Fredric Jameson’s seminal work, The Political Unconscious, as an outcropping of Marxist literary criticism and structural theory. Texts such as Shelley’s “Ode to the West Wind” and Shakespeare’s seventy-third sonnet are examined in the context of Jameson’s three horizons of underlying interpretive frameworks–the political, the social, and the historical, each carefully explained. The extent to which those frameworks permeate individual thought is addressed in a discussion of Jameson’s concept of the “ideologeme.” The theorist’s work is juxtaposed with the writings of Bakhtin and Levi-Strauss. The lecture concludes by revisiting the children’s story Tony the Tow Truck, upon which Jameson’s theory of literature is mapped.

The New Historicism
In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry examines the work of two seminal New Historicists, Stephen Greenblatt and Jerome McGann. The origins of New Historicism in Early Modern literary studies are explored, and New Historicism’s common strategies, preferred evidence, and literary sites are explored. Greenblatt’s reliance on Foucault is juxtaposed with McGann’s use of Bakhtin. The lecture concludes with an extensive consideration of the project of editing of Keats’s poetry in light of New Historicist concerns.

The Classical Feminist Tradition
In this lecture on feminist criticism, Professor Paul Fry uses Virginia Woolf’s A Room of One’s Own as a lens to and commentary on the flourishing of feminist criticism in the twentieth century. The structure and rhetoric of A Room of One’s Own is extensively analyzed, as are its core considerations of female novelists such as Austen, Eliot, and the Brontës. The works of major feminist critics, such as Ann Douglas, Mary Ellman, Kate Millett, Elaine Showalter, Sandra Gilbert and Susan Gubar, are mentioned. The logocentric approach to gender theory, specifically the task of defining female language as something different and separate from male language, is considered alongside Woolf’s own endorsement of literary and intellectual androgyny.

African-American Criticism
In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry examines trends in African-American criticism through the lens of Henry Louis Gates, Jr. and Toni Morrison. A brief history of African-American literature and criticism is undertaken, and the relationship of both to feminist theory is explicated. The problems in cultural and identity studies of essentialism, “the identity queue,” expropriation, and biology are surveyed, with particular attention paid to the work of Michael Cooke and Morrison’s reading of Huckleberry Finn. At the lecture’s conclusion, the tense relationship between African-American studies and New Critical assumptions are explored with reference to Robert Penn Warren’s poem, “Pondy Woods.”

Post-Colonial Criticism
In this lecture on post-colonial theory, Professor Paul Fry explores the work of Edward Said and Homi K. Bhabha. The complicated origins, definitions, and limitations of the term “post-colonial” are outlined. Elaine Showalter’s theory of the phasic development of female literary identity is applied to the expression of post-colonial identities. Crucial terms such as ambivalence, hybridity, and double consciousness are explained. The relationship between Bhabha’s concept of sly civility and Gates’s “signifyin’ ” is discussed, along with the reliance of both on semiotics.

Queer Theory and Gender Performativity
In this lecture on queer theory, Professor Paul Fry explores the work of Judith Butler in relation to Michel Foucault’sHistory of Sexuality. Differences in terminology and methods are discussed, including Butler’s emphasis on performance and Foucault’s reliance on formulations such as “power-knowledge” and “the deployment of alliance.” Butler’s fixation with ontology is explored with reference to Levi-Strauss’s concept of the raw and the cooked. At the lecture’s conclusion, Butler’s interrogation of identity politics is compared with that of post-colonial and African-American theorists.

The Institutional Construction of Literary Study
In this lecture on critical identities, Professor Fry examines the work of Stanley Fish and John Guillory. The lecture begins by examining Tony the Tow Truck as a site for the emergence of literary identities, then brings the course’s use of the children’s story under scrutiny through the lens of Fish. The evolution of Fish’s theory of interpretive communities is traced chronologically through his publications and examined in close-up in Milton’s Paradise Lost. John Guillory’s work on interpretive communities and the culture wars leads to a discussion of the Western canon and multiculturalism.

The End of Theory?; Neo-Pragmatism
In this lecture, Professor Paul Fry takes on Knapp and Michaels’s influential article, “Against Theory.” The historical context of the piece is given and key aspects of the theorists’ critical orientations, specifically their neo-pragmatism, are defined. A lengthy discussion of the relationships between, on the one hand, intention and meaning and, on the other hand, language and speech follows with reference to Saussure, deconstruction, and Russian formalism. Knapp and Michaels’s use of Wordsworth’s “A Slumber Did My Spirit Seal” to explore the limits of meaning and intention is examined in depth. Ultimately, the case is made, using issues subject to dispute in Knapp and Michaels, that theory is a useful and necessary tool in literary studies.

Reflections; Who Doesn’t Hate Theory Now?
In this final lecture on literary theory, Professor Paul Fry revisits the relationship between language and speech, language and intention, and language and communication. Over the course of this discussion, he retrospectively defines theory as a means of establishing the extent to which “it is legitimate to be suspicious of communication.” Along the way, he reconnects with New Criticism, Jakobson, Bakhtin, Saussure, de Man, Fish, and Knapp and Michaels. Through an analysis of epitaphs and a final tour through Tony the Tow Truck, he underscores the central role of language in the variety of literary theories presented in the course.

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